The State of the Estates

1500 - The borderline between the Middle Ages and the Modern Age. During the Hussite times, Bohemia became isolated from Southern and Western Europe. Expansion of the Turks to the Balkans. Mastered Constantinople in 1453. The Ottoman Empire threatened Hungary, Austria, Central Europe. Hence attempts to coordinate Central European countries against the Turks: 1526: the Danube Monarchy (Lands of the Czech Crown, Austria, Hungary) under the Habsburgs. Western Europe looked for new routes to India, to bypass the Ottomans, who obstructed trade. Portugese sailors saled roung Africa (1498) and reached India. Columbus landed in America (12th October 1492). The Portugese, the Spanianrs, the Dutch, the British - overseas colonies. Extension of the existing world. Humanism, renaissance - around 1500. From Italian city states. (Florence, Venice, Verona, Milan, Mantua). Middle Ages felt an acute contrast between humanity and divinity. Eternal, perfect, divinity, temporarily limited, imperfect humanity. In Italy, from 14th century, a different division: contrast between humanity and barbarism Humanism = studia humana. Humanists did not regard Man as the centre of the universe, but saw him/her as a dignified human being, rational actions, right to free decision making. Man must understand one's freedom and its limits. Thus he becomes blanced, responsible and tolerant. This philosophy based on pre-christian philosophers from Greece and Rome rather than the Bible. Traditional Christians did not like the humanists'rejection of the ascetic way of life. Yet supported education. Study of languages, natural sciences, new methods, experiments. Roots of modern science. After 1450: great impact of the invention of printingnents, struggles between catholics and protestants, Copernicus's helicontrism, - cast doubt on fixed perceptions. Insecurity. Artists: the world is a Labyrinth. Instability. Astrology, alchemy, black magic.

BOHEMIA - THE STATE OF THE ESTATES

Kutná Hora peace in 1485 - agreement between catholics and utraquists. Conflicts between nobility and the burgers. Four estates: Higher nobility, lower nobility, royal towns, clergy. The clergy was not represented in the assembly of the land. After the death of Matthias Corvinus, Vladislav Jagiellon also obtained the Hungarian crown, moved to Buda. Czech and Hungarian crown remained united until 1918. Absence of the king in Bohemia: internal conflicts. In 1501, Czech higher nobility created a closed circle of the noblemen (higher nobility). Knights, royal burghs. First conflict between higher nobility and towns in 1500: New royal constitution for Bohemia adopted, curtailed the political power of towns. 1502, King Vladislav supported the nobility. In 1506, knight Jan Kopidlanský killed somebody in Prague and the Town Councillors sentenced him to death and had him executed. Brother Jiří Kopidlanský revenged himself by continuing atrocities. Cities demanded redress, but nobility hid Kopidlanský. 1513 - open conflict between towns and nobility. Agreement in 1517, older town privileges confirmed. Strong influence of the nobility until 1526. King Ludvík of Jagiellon (1516-1526) also mostly resided in Hungary. Decrease of authority of royal power. More conflicts between nobility and towns. In August 1526, Ludvík of Jagiellon was killed in a battled with the Turks near Mohacz.

THE ARRIVAL OF THE HABSBURGS

The Czech Estates were quite pleased with the distructionof the Czech Hungarian personal union due to the death of Ludvík. They were afraid they might have to pay to the Hungarians for the defence against the Turks. Need to elect a new ruler. Various capable Czech candidates were unable to meet royal debts of 300 000 guilders, The Archduke of Austrian, 23-year old FERDINAND HABSBURG offered to pay half the amount.

On 23rd October 1526 Czech ESTATES ELECTED THE ABSENT FERDINAND TO BE CZECH KING THEREBY ALLOWING THE HABSBURG DYNASTY TO RULE CENTRAL EUROPE FOR FOUR HUNDRED YEARS!

Ferdinand's older brother Charles was the king of Spain from 1516, King of Holy Roman Empire of Germany from 1519 and then he inherited Holland and Belgium. Ferdinand also received the Hungarian crown in 1528. The Habsburgs suddenly became the most powerful dynasty in Europe. Czechs did not understand that by electing Ferdinand they opened themselves to the danger of re-catholicisation and that they entered the main conflict of European politics. Ferdinand promised to keep all existing privileges of the estates, but soon after election started to weaken them. Ferdinand I. - energetic and systematic ruler , strengthening the power of the monarchy. Conflict of the estate principle and the monarchic principle in Bohemia. Taxes. Ferdinand needed more taxes for wars with the Turks. Approved by the Assembly of the Land Religious question. 1546-1547 - Charles V. waged a war against protestant princes in Saxony. Ferdinand supported his brother, Czech estates were supposed to do so also, reluctant reaction. In 1547 Ferdinand ordered Czech nobles to gather their soldiers at Litoměřice, to fight the Saxon Kurfuerst. Czech nobility rebelled. The Assembly in Prague said that the Emperor had broken the law of the land, called a war without the prior agreement of the Estates. But Moravians did not support the Czech rebels, they went to apologise. The power of the cities was curtailed. Property confiscation, mostly from supporters of the Unity of Brethen, four exemplary executions in Prague in 1547. Howewer, Habsburgs were defeated - The Peace of Augsburg - 1555 -- cuius regio, eius religio But Ferdinand made confessions to towns and in 1564 got permission from the Pope for communion in both kinds for Bohemia and Moravia, to blunt the onslaught of the more aggressive protestants. Johannes Gutenberg. (Printing in Bohemia from around 1470.) Unified supranational language: humanistic Latin. Renaissance: in art and in the lifestyle. re-birth of classical ideals. Realistic depictions in painting. portraits, crowd scenes, in classical settings. Allegories, using ancient classical motifs. Concentration on Man - the measure of all things. Naturalness and attraction of nakedness. Support of artists. Great individualities. Humanism and renaissance came late to Bohemia: Distrust by most Czechs: it came from catholic Italy. Humanism based on the cult of pagan classical times, this was in conflict with God's law of the Bible. The Czech renaissance mostly MORALLY STRICT, lack of money, lack of real supporters of the arts From 1517: Great European reformation movement, starting with the German reformation of Martin Luther in 1517. Utraquists and the members of the Unity of Brethren no longer regarded as heretics. Luther regarded Jan Hus as his direct predecessor. Calvin's reformation (Geneva), into Britain, Holland. The catholic church - counteroffensive. Counter-reformation from the Council of Trident, in 1545 - 1563. Some humanist principles, but mostly relied on the help of the Habsburghs, ruling in Spain, in the Holy Roman Empire and in Central Europe. Supported a unified centralised state. Habsburgs tried to set up a centralised, absolutistic monarchy. The "Czech question" became a part of the pan-European confrontation (Thirty Years' War) Connection of Europe with other continents. 1556 - Charles V. died. The Title of the Emperor was moved to the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs. Ferdinand's son Maxmilian I. (1564-1576) sympathised with the Luterans. Not agressive, concessions. Religious squabbling in Bohemia: luterans, Czech brothers wanted their legalisation. In 1567 Maxmilian abolished the Basle Compact, but did not want to recognise any other new religion. STRONG INFLUENCE OF JESUIT SCHOOLING - introduced to Prague in 1556 by Ferdinand I. New confession of faith "Czech Confession" which would legalise lutherans, neoutraquists and Czech brethren. Maximilian never approved it. Maximilian's son Rudolph II (1576-1611) militant catholic, brought up in Spain. Unbalanced. Interbred. Manic-depressive. Incapable ruler. Moved his court to Prague. Prague - centre of cultural Europe. Rudolph - collector of art, supporter of artists, charlatans. Renewed catholic pressure. Papal ambassadors. Turkish danger - from 1575 Turkish onslaught on Slovakia. There were only some 12 - 15 per cent Catholics in Bohemia at the end of 16th century, but between 1598 - 1599 they mastered main offices of government. (Rudolph's illegitimate son, Julian d'Austria, manic murderer. Mutilated and killed a town girl in the castle of Český Krumlov.) The rebellion of the Estates incited by Rudolph's brother Matthias in 1608. In 1609, Rudolph had to publish a Letter of Majesty about religious freedom, which confirmed the Czech confession freedoms. Nobody could be forced to any religious faith. Rudolph made concessions only to those who developed the strongest pressure. Sent troops of a militant relative to pillage in Prague in 1611. Revulsion, in 1611 Rudolph was forced to abdicate, after his death in 1612, Matthias became emperor. Matthias (1611- 1619) moved the court to Vienna again. Master of compromise, but the catholic side was strengthened. Problems of succession, Matthias did not have a son. Ferdinand of Steyern was accepted as future ruler. Strictly Catholic. Sharpening of conflict between protestants and catholics in Europe. Bohemia - centre of the conflict. After the Assembly of 1617, catholics - open hostility. March 1618 - congress of non-catholic estates in Prague, protesting to the Emperor against the infringement of the Letter of Majesty. Matthias banned the non-catholics from meeting again. Open rebellion. Large gathering on 21th May, 1618 in Carolinum in Prague. Protestant nobles stormed the Prague Castle (23rd May 1618) and threw the governors Jaroslav Martinic, Vilém Slavata and scribe Fabricius out of the windows. Third Prague defenestration. Virgin Mary help the Catholics? (manure under the windows) This action was the beginning of the Thirty Years War.

THE BAROQUE TIMES, HABSBURG ABSOLUTISM

The BAROQUE influences reached Bohemia after the Battle of the White Mountain in 1620 with the expansion of the role of the Catholic Church. "Barocco" - a Portugese expression for an irregularly shaped pearl. Iberian Penninsula. Irregular forms, inner tension, sense of drama. Firm order bezond irregularity, conspicous emotion. Baroque contrast: nothingness of real life and perfect divine world. (like in the Middle Ages). Life on earth is a dream. Real life is only after death. But good behaviour on earth can secure heaven. Nothing is predetermined. Life on earth is transitory, but can be good, if conducted properly. Man must aim for God, but people are fallible. Hence confession and forgiveness. Baroque metaphors - medium is the message. Influence of mediaevalism. South European catholicism, Baroque attitudes were as reaction to the rationality of humanism and renaissance. Difficult to swallow for the protestants. Three stages:
  • Early baroque (up to 1680 in Bohemia)
  • High Baroque (1680 -1740)
  • Late Baroque, Roccoco style. Decorative details, mannerism ABSOLUTISM - another alien concept in Central Europe. Ferdinand II. Total power of the ruler. Habsburgs tried to introduce it everywhere where they ruled. Absolutist centralism becomes all powerful after 1680, when the Habsburg monarchy becomes a Great Power. BOHEMIA: 1. The Estates were deprived of power 2. Baroque style was introduced.

    THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR

    started in May 1918 as a religious and political conflict in Bohemia, continued as a clash between the catholic Habsburg Emperor and German protestant princes, in the end turned into a power struggle between the Habsburgs and France. It was also a conflict between the rule of the estates and the absolutist state.

    1. CZECH-PALATINE WAR (1618-1623)

    The defeated Czech nobles hoped that Holland would help, because it was threatened by the Habsburgs both from Spain and from Austria. Elector of Palatine Friedrich, who was briefly Czech King, lost. The defeated Czech noblemen were tried by an extraordinary court. All those that had defected were sentenced to death and confiscation of property. Members of the Directorate were imprisoned and on 21st June, 1621, twenty seven of them were executed. Extensive confiscations of property,given to faithful catholic noblemen and to foreign officers.

    2. THE DANISH WAR (1625-1629)

    In 1624, the Netherlands and England joined forces. Eventually, in 1625, a strong anti-Habsburg coalition was created. England, the Netherlands, Denmark, Lower Saxony. Against: The Habsburgs, supported by France, Turkey. Czech commander Albrecht of Wallenstein, educated in the schools of the Unity of Brethren, converted to Catholicism. Became a generalissimus for the Imperial armires. Defeats suffered by the Danish side in 1626. Albrecht was named the Duke of Meklenburg and the General of the Atlantic and Baltic Seas. 1629 - a peace treaty was signed in Luebeck, the anti-Habsburg coalition collapsed. Ferdinand II wanted to push through the EDICT OF RESTITUTION (1629) - all catholic property was to be returned as it was before 1555 (the agreement of Augsburg). A new anti-Habsburg coalition (France, Sweden), Ferdinand was forced to accept concessions, Edict of Restituion was forgotten. BUT: in BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA: new constitution: RENEWED ORDINANCE (1627 Bohemia, 1628 Moravia): Habsburgs were given a hereditary right 3. SWEDISH WAR (1630 - 1635) The army of Swedish King Gustav II. Adolphus invaded Northern Bohemia. Brandenburgs and Saxons joined him. Saxons reached Prague in November 1631, along with some Czech exiles, who put their hopes in the Swedish King. In November 1632, Wallenstein fought the Swedes at Luetzen, the Swedish King was killed, the battle was undecisive. Wallenstein flirted with the French and the Saxons, did not dare openly to switch sides. All sides began to mistrust him. 1633: Wallenstein defeated the Swedes, but released all captured Swedish officers. Wallenstein's greed for power, maybe also influence of syphilis. In January 1634 Wallenstein was deprived of the supreme command of the Austrian armies, on 25th February 1634 he was murdered in Cheb. In September 1634, Swedish troops were defeated by the Austrians.

    4. THE SWEDISH-FRENCH WAR (1635-1648)

    Partial stabilisation in Central Europe: The French, led by cardinal Richelieu, joined Holland and Sweden and declared war on the Spanish Habsburgs. At the beginning of 1639 Swedish troops invaded Bohemia, but their looting was greeted with hostility. Various bloody battles on Czech territory. In 1648, Swedish troops invaded Prague, but Prague student and university teachers, volunteering, successfully defeated them. Virgin Mary column was erected on the Old Town Square, was pulled down in 1918. Peace negotiations culminated in the PEACE OF WESTPHALIA (24th October, 1648). Holy Roman Empire and Spain lost supremacy in Europe, France and Sweden became powerful. Sweden controlled the Baltics. The Netherlands were independent. The Habsburgs confirmed their grip on Central Europe. 1624 - became the line before which one could not go. What was then Catholic was supposed to remain Catholic. Blow to Czech protestant emigrés.

    THE RULE OF LEOPOLD I (1657-1706) - THE TURKISH DANGER

    The centre of Habsburg power - Austria. Ferdinand III. ruled from 1637. Leopold I,'s rule: further strengthening of the absolutist rule, by bureaucratic means. Rivalry with France. Austrian - Turkish war. The Turks mastered parts of Slovakia, in spite of Habsburg victory over them in 1664. Hungarian nobility used Turkish presence for rebellion against the Habsburg centralism. In 1683, Turks besieged Vienna, but were defeated. Leopold hated the French King Louis XIV., took part in anti-French wars. Continuous wars, very heavy taxes imposed on the population of Austria

    WARS OF THE SPANISH HERITAGE: JOSEPH I (1705-1711)

    Charles II of Spain died in 1700. France managed to persuade the dying Spanish King to give the throne to Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. Anti-French coalition (Britain, Holland, many German princes). From August 1704 French suffered defeats due to the Austrian commander Eugene of Savoy. Britain got hold of Gibraltar. After the death of Joseph I, Charles VI., pretendent of the Spanish Kingdom, assumed the Austrian throne - renewed fears of too strong Habsburg influence. Under the rule of Joseph I, the individual Austrian lands were given a little more leeway. Proposals from the nobility were to be considered. Charles VI. - Britain - peace negotiations with France, to curb Habsburg influence. Spanish heritage peace concluded in 1713-1714. More economic difficulties in Austria. Charles VI. was childless: pragmatic sanction (1713) - also right of female succession. Austria's new strong rivals: Britain, France, Brandenburg, turning into Prussia. 1730s - open hostility between Austria and Prussia. Austrian defeated by Turkey at the Balkans. BOHEMIA: Absolutist principle ruled. Old Czech nobility lost. Later, "land patriotism". Many wars and foreign conflicts. A very high burden of taxation.

    ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF BOHEMIA - 1620 - 1740

    Looting by armies, heavy taxes. Little foreign trade. Devaluation of currency. State bankruptcy in 1623. This meant that a small group of foreign mercenaries concentrated large amounts of property in their hands. Repeated confiscations. Influx of foreign noble families. A third of the population died. Highway robberies, agressive beggars. After the peace of Wesphalia, MERCANTILISM - trade - the basis of wealth. Self-sufficient state. Not to export raw materials. Large farms, run by the nobility. Peasants had to work for the nobles up to three days a week. Productivity of noblemen's farms in comparison with peasant farms 1:10. Various peasant rebellions. June 1680: Leopold I. published a corvée patent: confirmed the duty of working on noblemen's land for three days a week.

    RECATHOLISATION

    Before 1620, 85 - 90 per cent Czechs were non Catholic. From 1621, recatholisation. Missionary work among adults. Building of quality catholic schools on all levels. Religious orders from abroad, priests from Poland. 1622 - Charles University was given to Catholics. 1624 - first decrees banning non catholic religion. 1627 - nobility will accept Catholicism or will leave the land. Strong emigration. Violent conversions during the Thirty Years War. Educational methods much more effective. Spectacles of religious services. Theatrical performances, fireworks. Trident Council (1545 - 1563) - Catholic Church reacted to protestantism by improving itself and wanting to gain faithful adherents for salvation. Religious ceremonies. Confession. Sanctification of Jan of Nepomuk (1729) 1654 . Charles-Ferdinand University (name until 1920). Czech Baroque: connected with Bavarian Baroque, Moravian Baroque connected with Austrian Baroque. Czech towns and villages - Baroque. Sensitive understanding of how to place buildings in the countryside. Italian, Bavarian, French architects. Gesamtkunstwerk - a complete artistic work. Baroque Music. Adam Michna z Otradovic. Pavel Josef Vejvanovský. Jan Dismas Zelenka