Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski: (Five Books) On Reforming the Republic
For the Republic is like the body of a living creature, none of whose limbs serves itself alone, but the eyes, hands, feet and other limbs work in common for each other and so carry out their duties for the good of the whole body; for when all goes well with the whole body, they also fare well; when badly, then the limbs, too, must be at a disadvantage. And just as a limb torn from the body no longer deserves the name, for it is unable either to live or to carry out its duties, if it is not connected to the body, so no citizen can reasonably live outwith the republic or carry out his duties. Nor can the king wield power, or any official perform the duties that pertain to his office, or any private person lead a peaceful and pleasant life outwith the republic. And if such a person might be found who could live without human society and without need of any other be satisfied with his own company alone, then such a man, as Aristotle says, should be considered a beast or some sort of god.
Let, therefore, the aim of the republic be to enable all its citizens to live well and in happiness, that is (as Cicero explains) honestly and justly, so that all increase alike in dignity and benefit, so that all lead a life of peace and quiet, so that each person can protect and maintain his property, and be safe as possible from harm and violence. For it is precisely against these that people seek refuge in towns and republics.
Chapter 2: The Kinds of Republic that Exist
Philosophers mention three forms of republic, which, according to the differences between those who rule them, are given various names from the Greek: monarchies, oligarchies and polities.
Government by one man is called a monarchy. If this is based on some laws, it is a kingdom, if it depends on the licence of the ruler Ñ a tyranny.
Government by the few is called an oligarchy; if these respect courage and virtue, it is an aristocracy, that is governance by the best; if, however, these few respect other things, such as wealth or other gifts of fortune, then they retain the name reserved for this kind of government, that is an oligarchy.
A polity is governance by the majority of citizens; here honours and high office are bestowed according to universal suffrage and all citizens can strive equally for praise of their virtues and to rule; if it is done fairly and for the public good, then such government is given the common name of the thing that is held in common by all, that is a commonwealth (republic). For common to all is that which is public, thus a republic seems nothing other than honesty and benefit for all alike.
If, finally, the nation is prompted, as may happen, by rashness and in conducting its affairs does not observe the principle of honesty and does not wish to serve all but only to honour and benefit the poor, then such a system is known as a democracy, that is government by the people.
But the best form of republic is considered to be that in which all three forms may be found: governance by kings, by the best and by the people, that is to say, where the virtue of the king is paramount, where the nationÕs best sons receive the highest offices, and where all are equally free to pursue fame and glory by their resourcefulness. Such was MosesÕ state as Holy Scripture shows us. The authority of practically one man held sway, in whose service laboured the most astute of men; and jointly with him they bore the burden of judgement, the affairs and pains of state. They were chosen from the whole nation and it was the entire nation which chose them. And for that reason Moses appealed to the whole nation: ÒTake you wise men, and understanding, and known among your tribes, and I will make them rulers over you.Ó And thus with his prestige did Moses support those whom the whole nation had elected from within itself, which is just and necessary in that mother country which is a thing common to all.
The more closely a republic approximates to such a form, the more pleasing it is; and the further it departs from such a form Ñ the less it pleases.
Book III: On War
Chapter 1
We should attempt by all means possible to avoid war. And if it cannot be avoided, then what should be done, what should we strive to do in times of peace ? On the fortifications which should be built on the borders.
So as to avoid ever having to wage war, we should keep the peace as diligently as possible with foreign nations and never give them cause to have evil designs against us. If, however, some grievance should arise from beyond our borders, then we should seek to remove the cause either in accordance with the law or by the deliberations of honest men.
To facilitate such matters, neighbouring nations and princes usually conclude treaties with one another. Since they have no one who might be a common judge over them, each side elects people to judge their complaint, either from foreigners, or from their own subjects freed temporarily from their oath of allegiance (by which they may be bound) in order to be more freely able to deliberate every aspect according to what is good and right. That such treaties are permitted with nations who do not share the same faith, but practise a different religion, is indicated by the example of the holy fathers: as Abraham first, and then Isaac made an alliance with Abimelech and confirmed it by an oath.
We should generally strive to remain at peace with all peoples, a peace which is, I repeat, stable and lasting and free of all treachery. For if someone under the pretext of peace is preparing war against us, then there is no true peace with suchlike, for the more time we leave him before war breaks out, the stronger he grows and more he prepares for war. So we should pay close attention in times of peace to what those, with whom we have business, are doing, what they are engaged in, and with whom they are negotiating. If it appears that their intentions an activities are tending towards war, then we should obstruct them by whatever means we can devise, as long as they are honest. We should ban any exports of materials which can be used by them to make weapons, which we can easily do by saying that we need such materials ourselves. We should reinforce our borders both with soldiers and other entrenchments; proof that such measures discourage neighbours from war, especially those who seek plunder, is given by the Tatars. When they hear that our troops are encamped at the borders, they sit at home and do not attack our lands.